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Rubus Nivalis, commonly known as snow raspberry, is a species of Flowering plant in the rose family. It is native to western North America from British Columbia to far northern California, where it grows in mountain forests.

Flowering plant

The Flowering plants (angiosperms), also known as Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta, are the most diverse group of land plants. Angiosperms are seed-producing plants like the gymnosperms and can be distinguished from the gymnosperms by a series of synapomorphies (derived characteristics). These characteristics include flowers, endosperm within the seeds, and the production of fruits that contain the seeds.

The ancestors of Flowering plants diverged from gymnosperms around 245–202 million years ago, and the first Flowering plants known to exist are from 140 million years ago. They diversified enormously during the Lower Cretaceous and became widespread around 100 million years ago, but replaced conifers as the dominant trees only around 60-100 million years ago.



Rubus nivalis

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Rosids
Order: Rosales
Family: Rosaceae
Genus: Rubus
Subgenus: Chamaebatus
Species: R. nivalis

Binomial name
Rubus nivalis

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Rubus deliciosus (Boulder Raspberry or Delicious Raspberry) is a deciduous shrub native to the United States, in the Rocky Mountains in Colorado, New Mexico, western Oklahoma (Cimarron County only), and Wyoming.

Distribution

The Rubus deliciosus plant inhabits scrub and rocky slopes. Some botanists place it in a separate genus as Oreobatus deliciosus (Torr.) Rydb.

Description

Rubus deliciosus is a deciduous shrub or vine growing to 1.5 m (rarely to 3 m) with arching stems; unlike many species of Rubus, the flowering stems are perennial. The bark is flaky and peeling. The leaves are simple (not compound, like most other species in the genus), 3.3–5 cm long and broad, with three shallowly rounded lobes (occasionally unlobed or five-lobed), becoming glabrous beneath. The flowers are 3.8–6 cm diameter, fragrant, with five white petals 1.5–3 cm across.

The fruit is dark red, 10–13 mm diameter; it is rather dry and not highly valued, but the flavor is said to be delicious. The wild forms generally have unappealing fruit.

Cultivation

Rubus deliciosus requires well drained soil in full sun. It is hardy to USDA zone #5 (-20°C; 18°F). It is propagated by cuttings in July or August.

Hybrids

Rubus deliciosus has been hybridized in cultivation with the very closely related (and possibly conspecific) Rubus trilobus of southern Mexico. They are popular ornamental plants in gardens, having larger flowers up to 8 cm diameter.
Two cultivars of this parentage have been selected:

* 'Benenden'
* 'Margaret Gordon'



Rubus deliciosus (Delicious Raspberry)
Cultivated in Sweden

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Rosales
Family: Rosaceae
Genus: Rubus
Species: R. deliciosus

Binomial name
Rubus deliciosus

Related : Raspberry

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The Arctic raspberry, Rubus arcticus, (includes Rubus arcticus ssp. acaulis - (Michx.)) is a species of slow-growing bramble belonging to the rose family. Its dark red fruit is considered as a delicacy. In the Pacific Northwest it is sometimes called the nagoon or nagoonberry, a name which derives from the Tlingit neigóon. Many consider it to be one of the tastiest fruits in the world: for instance in Russian its name is the "berry of kings" (?????????). It grows in northern Sweden, Norway, Finland, Russia (Siberia), in few locations in Estonia and in parts of North America.

Description

A small red berry not unlike the sister varieties, with an unusual hardiness to frost and cold weather conditions.
Ripe Arctic raspberry

Distribution

The Arctic raspberry can be found mainly in northern landscapes of Alaska, Canada,Finland, Scandinavia and Northern Russia. It grows most often in acidic, high organic matter soils.

Uses

The fruits of the Arctic raspberries are very tasty and, among other uses, make jam and liqueur, or flavour tea. Carl von Linné considered the Arctic raspberries - åkerbär in Swedish - a great delicacy in his Flora Lapponica (1737). Also used in Smirnoff Ice and North, and Lignell & Piispanen's Mesimarjalikööri, and Wine fruit of Arctic raspberry (Central Arctic in Adub). Arctic raspberries is the provincial plant of the Norrbotten province of northern Sweden.



Rubus arcticus

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Rosales
Family: Rosaceae
Genus: Rubus
Subgenus: Cyclactis
Species: R. arcticus
Binomial name
Rubus arcticus

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Rubus strigosus, the American Red Raspberry or American Raspberry, is a species of Rubus native to most of North America. It has been widely treated as a variety or subspecies of the closely related Eurasian Rubus idaeus (Raspberry or European Raspberry), but is increasingly being treated as a distinct species.

Distribution

Rubus strigosus is widely distributed in North America. Some authors also treat raspberries in eastern Asia, east from the Aerhtal Shan (Altai) Mountain Range in Mongolia to Dongbei (Manchuria) and Japan in this taxon (where it is suggested to have originated along with a great deal of the North American flora), but others include all Asian raspberries in R. idaeus. The two species probably recently diverged from a common ancestor and this has led many taxonomists to refer to them interchangeably or sometimes as a variety of the other such as R. idaeus L. var. strigosus (Michx.) Maxim. The plant is named R. strigosus in the floras of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, and by other Maritime field researchers.

Description

Rubus strigosus is a perennial plant which bears biennial stems ("canes") from the perennial root system. In its first year, a new stem grows vigorously to its full height of 0.5–2 m, unbranched, and bearing large pinnate leaves with three or five (rarely seven) leaflets; normally it does not produce any flowers. In its second year, the stem does not grow taller, but produces several side shoots, which bear smaller leaves with three leaflets.

The flowers are produced in late spring on short racemes on the tips of these side shoots, each flower with five white petals 4–7 mm long. The fruit is 1–1.2 cm diameter, red, edible, sweet but tart-flavored, produced in summer or early autumn; in botanical terminology, it is not a berry at all, but an aggregate fruit of numerous drupelets around a central core.

Many of the commercial Raspberry cultivars grown for their fruit derive from hybrids between Rubus strigosus and R. idaeus; see Raspberry for more details.

Taxonomy

Many taxonomists believe that R. strigosus Michx. is the same species as the European Rubus idaeus L. These two are the most common members of the subgenus Idaeobatus and can be difficult to differentiate; the most distinctive physical difference being the gland-tipped hairs on first-year canes, petioles, pedicels and calyces of R. strigosus. This character had been refuted previously by Fernald, but Bailey's sheer volume of taxonomic work with Rubus is more reliable.



Rubus strigosus

Rubus strigosus near Matanuska Glacier, Alaska

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Rosales
Family: Rosaceae
Genus: Rubus
Subgenus: Idaeobatus
Species: R. strigosus

Binomial name
Rubus strigosus

Related : Raspberry

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Rubus rosifolius, (syn. Rubus rosaefolius) also known as roseleaf bramble, West Indian raspberry, thimbleberry and ola'a is a prickly subshrub native to rainforest and tall open forest of the Himalayas, East Asia, and eastern Australia. It is also found abundantly in the Brazilian states Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro and to the south until Rio Grande do Sul.

Rose-leaf bramble leaves are compound with toothed margins, with glandular-hairs on both sides of leaflets. Flowers are white in panicles or solitary. Edible fruit are 2 cm long.

Leaves stay green and fruits ripen in winter in Eastern Australia.

Uses

The fruit is sweet and pleasant flavoured when grown with good soil moisture. The fruit is also sold at markets in the Himalayas.

Leaf is used as a medicinal herb tea, for treating diarrhoea, menstrual pains, morning sickness and labour pains. The leaf contains essential oils.

Rubus rosifolius is rarely cultivated.

Weed Risk

R. rosifolius is an introduced environmental weed in the Hawaiian Islands, Puerto Rico and French Polynesia, and extreme caution should be adopted when considering introducing this plant into regions where it is not already native.

Rubus rosifolius

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
(unranked): eudicot
Order: Rosales
Family: Rosaceae
Genus: Rubus
Species: R. rosifolius

Binomial name
Rubus rosifolius

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Rubus phoenicolasius (Japanese Wineberry, Wineberry, or Wine Raspberry) is a species of Raspberry (Rubus subgenus Idaeobatus) native to northern China, Japan, and Korea.

Characteristics

The species is a perennial plant which bears biennial stems ("canes") from the perennial root system. In its first year, a new stem grows vigorously to its full height of 1-3 m, unbranched, and bearing large pinnate leaves with three or five leaflets; normally it does not produce any flowers. In its second year, the stem does not grow taller, but produces several side shoots, which bear smaller leaves always with three leaflets; the leaves are white underneath.

The flowers are produced in late spring on short, very bristly racemes on the tips of these side shoots, each flower 6–10 mm diameter with five purplish red to pink petals and a bristly calyx. The fruit is orange or red, about 1 cm diameter, edible, produced in summer or early autumn; in botanical terminology, it is not a berry at all, but an aggregate fruit of numerous drupelets around a central core. Ripening occurs from early summer. The canes have fine, red thorns, which appear much like red hair.

In addition to seed propagation, new plants are formed from the tips of existing canes touching the ground. They enjoy moist soil and grow near and within wooded areas.

As a fruit develops, it is surrounded by a protective calyx covered in hairs that exude tiny drops of sticky fluid. A 2009 study by Sina Pohl at the University of Vienna showed that plants do not get nutrients from insects caught in the sap: the sticky mucilage contains no digestive enzymes; surrounding tissues cannot absorb nutrients; and there are no protein-storage tissues. Also, unlike carnivorous plants, wineberry grows in nurient-rich soil, so it has no need for insect nutrients.

Cultivation and uses

The species was introduced to Europe and North America as an ornamental plant and for its potential in breeding hybrid raspberries. It has subsequently escaped from cultivation and become naturalised and sometimes invasive in parts of Europe and eastern North America.

They are also called Wine raspberries. "Wineberry" is also the common name of a tree endemic to New Zealand.

Rubus phoenicolasius

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Rosales
Family: Rosaceae
Genus: Rubus
Subgenus: Idaeobatus
Species: R. phoenicolasius

Binomial name
Rubus phoenicolasius

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Rubus Parvifolius , native raspberries, or small-leaf bramble, is a scrambling shrub occurring in heathland and eucalyptus woodland native to eastern Australia.

Native raspberries young stems are finely pubescent, becoming hairless with age. The leaves are pinnate with 3 to 5 toothed leaflets. Flowers have red or pink petals. The red fruit is 1 cm wide.

Uses

The red fruit is pleasantly flavored and can be eaten out-of-hand or used in sauces and jams.

Rubus parvifolius

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
(unranked): eudicot
Order: Rosales
Family: Rosaceae
Genus: Rubus
Species: R. parvifolius


Binomial name
Rubus parvifolius

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Rubus Occidentalis is a species of Rubus native to eastern North America. Its common name black raspberry is shared with the closely related western American species Rubus leucodermis. Other names occasionally used include wild black raspberry, black caps, black cap raspberry, thimbleberry, and scotch cap.

Rubus occidentalis is a deciduous shrub growing to 2–3 m tall, with prickly shoots. The leaves are pinnate, with five leaflets on leaves strong-growing stems in their first year, and three leaflets on leaves on flowering branchlets. The flowers are distinct in having long, slender sepals 6–8 mm long, more than twice as long as the petals. The round-shaped fruit is a 12–15 mm diameter aggregation of drupelets; it is edible, and has a high content of anthocyanins and ellagic acid.

Black raspberries are high in anthocyanins. This has led to their being very useful as natural dyes and, since anthocyanins are powerful antioxidants, to a great deal of interest in them for their potential nutraceutical value. Extensive work has been ongoing at Ohio State University to evaluate their benefit for cancer treatment in mammalian test systems, and the first clinical trials on patients with esophageal cancer.

The black raspberry is also closely related to the red raspberries Rubus idaeus and Rubus strigosus, sharing the distinctively white underside of the leaves and fruit that readily detaches from the carpel, but differing in the ripe fruit being black, and in the stems being more prickly. The black fruit makes them look like blackberries, though this is only superficial, with the taste being unique and not like either the red raspberry or the blackberry. In much of the Mid-Atlantic United States, black raspberries are simply called blackberries, even though they are not.

As suggested by the common name, black raspberries usually have very dark purple-black fruits, rich in anthocyanin pigments. However, due to occasional mutations in the genes controlling anthocyanin production, yellow-fruited variants (yellow raspberries) sometimes occur, and have been occasionally propagated, especially in home/farm gardens in the midwestern United States (e.g., Ohio). The yellow-fruited variants of the black raspberry retain that species' distinctive flavor, different from the similar-appearing pale-fruited variants of cultivated red raspberries (generally the Eurasian Rubus idaeus, but with some being the North American Rubus strigosus, and other cultivars representing hybrids between these two widespread species).

Commercial growing and processing

The center for black raspberry production is in the Willamette Valley in Oregon. The main cultivar, 'Munger', is grown on about 600 ha (1500 acres). Other cultivars include 'John Robertson', 'Allen', 'Jewel', 'Blackhawk', 'Macblack', 'Plum Farmer', 'Dundee', 'Hanover', and 'Huron'. The plants are summer tipped by hand, mechanically pruned in winter and then machine harvested. The yields are generally low per acre and this is why the fruits are often expensive.

The species has been used in the breeding of many Rubus hybrids; those between red and black raspberries are common under the name purple raspberries; 'Brandywine', 'Royalty' and 'Estate' are examples of purple raspberry cultivars.

The berries are typically dried, frozen or made into purées and juices or processed as colorants. Two well known liqueurs predominantly based on black raspberry fruit include France's Chambord Liqueur Royale de France and South Korea's various manufacturers of Bokbunja (see Korean alcoholic beverages).

Rubus occidentalis

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Rosales
Family: Rosaceae
Genus: Rubus
Subgenus: Idaeobatus
Species: R. occidentalis
Binomial name
Rubus occidentalis

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Rubus leucodermis (Blackcap Raspberry, Black Raspberries, or Whitebark Raspberries, and native: Blue Raspberries) is a species of Rubus native to western North America, from British Columbia, Canada south to California, New Mexico and Mexico. It is closely related to the eastern Black Raspberries Rubus occidentalis.

It is a delicious shrub growing to 0.5-2 m tall, with thorny shoots. While the crown is perennial, the canes are biennial, growing vegetatively one year, flowering and fruiting the second and then dying. Like with other dark raspberries, the tips of the 1st year canes (primocanes) often grow downward to the soil in the fall, and take root and form tip layers which become new plants. The leaves are pinnate, with five leaflets on leaves strong-growing stems in their first year, and three leaflets on leaves on flowering branchlets with white, seldom light purple flowers. The fruit is 1–1.2 cm diameter, red to reddish-purple at first, turning dark purple to nearly black when ripe. The fruit has high contents of anthocyanins and ellagic acid.

It is a variable species, as well as forming natural hybrids with other species in subgenus Idaeobatus. Three varieties are recognized:

* Rubus leucodermis var. leucodermis
* Rubus leucodermis var. bernardinus Jepson
* Rubus leucodermis var. trinitatis Berger

Rubus Leucodermis

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Rosales
Family: Rosaceae
Genus: Rubus
Subgenus: Idaeobatus
Species: R. leucodermis

Binomial name
Rubus leucodermis

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Rubus idaeus (Raspberry; occasionally as European Raspberry, Framboise, or Red Raspberry to distinguish it from related species) is a species of Rubus, native to Europe and northern Asia. A closely related plant in North America, formerly often regarded as a variety Rubus idaeus var. strigosus, is now usually treated as a distinct species Rubus strigosus (American Raspberry).

It is a perennial plant which bears biennial stems ("canes") from the perennial root system. In its first year, a new stem grows vigorously to its full height of 1.5-2.5 m, unbranched, and bearing large pinnate leaves with five or seven leaflets; normally it does not produce any flowers. In its second year, the stem does not grow taller, but produces several side shoots, which bear smaller leaves with three or five leaflets. The flowers are produced in late spring on short racemes on the tips of these side shoots, each flower about 1 cm diameter with five white petals. The fruit is red, edible, sweet but tart-flavoured, produced in summer or early autumn; in botanical terminology, it is not a berry at all, but an aggregate fruit of numerous drupelets around a central core. In raspberries, as in other species of the subgenus Idaeobatus, the drupelets separate from the core when picked, leaving a hollow fruit, whereas in blackberry the drupelets stay attached to the core.

It typically grows in forests, forming open stands under a tree canopy, and denser stands in clearings. In the south of its range (southern Europe, central Asia), it only occurs at high altitudes in mountains. The species name idaeus refers to its occurrence on Mount Ida near Troy in northwest Turkey, where the ancient Greeks were most familiar with it.

Cultivation and uses

The fruit is an important food crop, though most modern commercial raspberries cultivars derive from hybrids between R. idaeus and R. strigosus.
Main article: Red raspberry leaf

The leaves have been used for centuries as a folk medicine to treat canker sores, cold sores, and gingivitis in persons of all ages as well as to treat anemia, leg cramps, diarrhea, and morning sickness in pregnant women, and as a uterine relaxant.

Raspberry ~ Rubus idaeus

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Rosales
Family: Rosaceae
Genus: Rubus
Subgenus: Idaeobatus
Species: R. idaeus

Binomial name
Rubus idaeus

related : Raspberry ~ Raspberry

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Rubus crataegifolius (Korean Raspberry) is a species of raspberries which grows wild in northeastern China, Japan, Korea, and the Ussuri region of the Russian Far East.

It is a shrub growing to 1-2 m (rarely 3 m) tall. The leaves are 5–12 cm long and 5–8 cm broad, palmately lobed with three or five lobes, and a serrated margin. The flowers are 1–1.5 cm diameter, with five white petals. The fruit is an aggregate fruit 1 cm diameter, made up of numerous drupelets. The species grows on forest margins and mountain slopes, in areas with moist and well-drained soil.



Its fruit is used for food and also for medicinal purposes, and the plant is sometimes cultivated; the cultivar 'Jingu Jengal' has been selected for its large fruit. The roots have been found to contain substances with anti-inflammatory effects in mice.

Rubus crataegifolius

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Rosales
Family: Rosaceae
Genus: Rubus
Subgenus: Idaeobatus
Species: R. crataegifolius

Binomial name
Rubus crataegifolius ~ Raspberry

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The raspberry is the edible fruit of a multitude of plant species in the genus Rubus, most of which are in the subgenus Idaeobatus. the name also applies to these plants themselves. Raspberries are perennial. The name originally referred to the European species Rubus idaeus (with red fruit), and is still used as its standard English name.

Species

Examples of raspberry species in subgenus Idaeobatus include:

* Rubus crataegifolius (Korean raspberry)
* Rubus idaeus (European red raspberry)
* Rubus Leucodermis (Whitebark or Western raspberry, Blue raspberry, Black raspberry)
* Rubus Occidentalis (Black raspberry)
* Rubus Parvifolius (Australian native raspberry)
* Rubus Phoenicolasius (Wine raspberry or Wineberry)
* Rubus Rosifolius (West Indian raspberry)
* Rubus Strigosus (American red raspberry) (syn. R. idaeus var. strigosus)

Several species of Rubus are also called raspberries that are classified in other subgenera, including:

* Rubus Arcticus (Arctic raspberry, subgenus Cyclactis)
* Rubus Deliciosus (Boulder raspberry, subgenus Anoplobatus)
* Rubus Nivalis (Snow raspberry, subgenus Chamaebatus)
* Rubus Odoratus (Flowering raspberry, subgenus Anoplobatus)
* Rubus Sieboldii (Molucca raspberry, subgenus Malachobatus)

Cultivation

Raspberries are grown for the fresh fruit market and for commercial processing into individually quick frozen (IQF) fruit, purée, juice, or as dried fruit used in a variety of grocery products. Traditionally, raspberries were a mid-summer crop, but with new technology, cultivars, and transportation, they can now be obtained year-round. Raspberries need ample sun and water for optimal development. While moisture is essential, wet and heavy soils or excess irrigation can bring on Phytophthora root rot which is one of the most serious pest problems facing red raspberry. As a cultivated plant in moist temperate regions, it is easy to grow and has a tendency to spread unless pruned. Escaped raspberries frequently appear as garden weeds, spread by seeds found in bird droppings.

Two types of most commercially grown kinds of raspberry are available, the summer-bearing type that produces an abundance of fruit on second-year canes (floricanes) within a relatively short period in mid-summer, and double- or "ever"-bearing plants, which also bear some fruit on first-year canes (primocanes) in the late summer and fall, as well as the summer crop on second-year canes. Raspberries can be cultivated from hardiness zones 3 to 9.

Raspberries are traditionally planted in the winter as dormant canes, although planting of tender, plug plants produced by tissue culture has become much more common. A specialized production system called "long cane production" involves growing canes for 1 year in a northern climate such as Scotland (UK) or Washington State (US) where the chilling requirement for proper budbreak is met early. These canes are then dug, roots and all, to be replanted in warmer climates such as Spain where they quickly flower and produce a very early season crop. Plants should be spaced 1 m apart in fertile, well drained soil; raspberries are usually planted in raised beds/ridges if there is any question about root rot problems.

The flowers can be a major nectar source for honeybees and other pollinators.

Raspberries are very vigorous and can be locally invasive. They propagate using basal shoots (also known as suckers); extended underground shoots that develop roots and individual plants. They can sucker new canes some distance from the main plant. For this reason, raspberries spread well, and can take over gardens if left unchecked.

The fruit is harvested when it comes off the torus/receptacle easily and has turned a deep color (red, black, purple, or golden yellow, depending on the species and cultivar). This is when the fruits are ripest and sweetest. Excess fruit can be made into raspberry jam or frozen.

The leaves can be used fresh or dried in herbal and medicinal teas. They have an astringent flavour, and in herbal medicine are reputed to be effective in regulating menses.

An individual raspberry weighs about 4 g, on average and is made up of around 100 drupelets, each of which consists of a juicy pulp and a single central seed. Raspberry bushes can yield several hundred berries a year. Unlike blackberries and dewberries, a raspberry has a hollow core once it is removed from the receptacle.

Cultivars

A "golden" raspberry cultivar

Numerous raspberry cultivars have been selected. Recent breeding has resulted in cultivars that are thornless and more strongly upright, not needing staking.

Red raspberries (Rubus idaeus and/or Rubus strigosus) have been crossed with the black raspberry (Rubus occidentalis) to produce purple raspberries, and with various species in other subgenera of the genus Rubus, resulting in a number of hybrids, such as boysenberry and loganberry. Hybridization between the familiar cultivated raspberries and a few Asiatic species of Rubus is also being explored.

Selected important cultivars

Source: New RHS Dictionary of Gardening.

Red, early summer fruiting

* Boyne
* Fert?di Venus
* Rubin Bulgarski
* Cascade Dawn
* Glen Clova
* Glen Moy
* Killarney
* Malahat
* Malling Exploit
* Titan
* Willamette

Red, mid summer

* Cuthbert
* Lloyd George
* Meeker
* Newburgh
* Ripley
* Skeena
* Cowichan
* Chemainus
* Saanich

Red, late summer

* Cascade Delight
* Coho
* Fert?di Rubina
* Glen Prosen
* Malling Leo
* Octavia
* Schoenemann
* Tulameen

Red, primocane, fall, autumn fruiting

* Amity
* Augusta
* Autumn Bliss
* Caroline
* Fert?di Kétszerterm?
* Heritage
* Josephine
* Ripley
* Summit
* Zeva Herbsternte

Gold/Yellow, primocane, fall, autumn fruiting

* Anne
* Fallgold
* Fert?di Aranyfürt
* Goldenwest
* Golden Queen
* Honey Queen

Purple

* Brandywine
* Royalty

Black

* Black Hawk
* Bristol
* Cumberland
* Glencoe
* Jewel
* Munger
* Ohio Everbearer
* Scepter

In Scotland, raspberries have been crossed with other berries to produce fruit with unique flavors. The raspberry and the blackberry were crossed at the Scottish Crops Research Institute to produce the Tayberry.

Diseases and pests

Raspberries are sometimes eaten by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species (butterflies and moths). See list of Lepidoptera that feed on Rubus. Botrytis cinerea, or Gray Mold is a common fungal infection of raspberries and other soft fruit. It is seen as a grey mold growing on the raspberries, and particularly affects fruit which is bruised, as it provides an easy entrance point for the spores of B. Cinerea.
Raspberry plants should not be planted where potatoes, tomatoes, peppers, eggplants or bulbs have previously been grown, without prior fumigation of the soil. These crops are hosts for the disease Verticillium Wilt, a fungus that can stay in the soil for many years and can infest the raspberry crop.

Commerce

Raspberries are an important commercial fruit crop, widely grown in all temperate regions of the world. Many of the most important modern commercial red raspberry cultivars derive from hybrids between R. idaeus and R. strigosus. Some botanists consider the Eurasian and American red raspberries to all belong to a single, circumboreal species, Rubus idaeus, with the European plants then classified as either R. idaeus subsp. idaeus or R. idaeus var. idaeus, and the native North American red raspberries classified as either R. idaeus subsp. strigosus, or R. idaeus var. strigosus.

The black raspberry, Rubus occidentalis, is also occasionally cultivated in the United States, providing both fresh and frozen fruit as well as jams, preserves, and other products, all with that species' distinctive, richer flavor.

Purple-fruited raspberries have been produced by horticultural hybridization of red and black raspberries, and have also been found in the wild in a few places (for example, in Vermont) where the American red and the black raspberries both grow naturally. The unofficial name Rubus × neglectus has been applied to these native American plants for which commercial production is rare.

Red and black raspberry species have albino-like pale-yellow variants resulting from expression of recessive genes for anthocyanin pigments. Variously called golden raspberries, yellow or (rarely) orange raspberries retain the distinctive flavor of their respective species. In the eastern United States, most commercially sold pale-fruited raspberries are derivatives of red raspberries. Yellow-fruited variants of the black raspberry occur occasionally in the wild or are grown in home gardens.

Nutrients and health benefits

Raspberries contain significant amounts of polyphenol antioxidants such as anthocyanin pigments linked to potential health protection against several human diseases. The aggregate fruit structure contributes to its nutritional value, as it increases the proportion of dietary fiber, placing it among plant foods with the highest fiber contents known, up to 20% fiber per total weight. Raspberries are a rich source of vitamin C, with 30 mg per serving of 1 cup (about 50% daily value), manganese (about 60% daily value) and dietary fiber (30% daily value). Contents of B vitamins 1-3, folic acid, magnesium, copper and iron are considerable in raspberries.

Raspberries rank near the top of all fruits for antioxidant strength, particularly due to their dense contents of ellagic acid (from ellagotannins), quercetin, gallic acid, anthocyanins, cyanidins, pelargonidins, catechins, kaempferol and salicylic acid. Yellow raspberries and others with pale-colored fruits are lower in anthocyanins.

Due to their rich contents of antioxidant vitamin C and the polyphenols mentioned above, raspberries have an ORAC value (oxygen radical absorbance capacity) of about 4900 per 100 grams, including them among the top-ranked ORAC fruits. Cranberries and wild blueberries have around 9000 ORAC units and apples average 2800.

The following anti-disease properties have been isolated in experimental models. Although there are no clinical studies to date proving these effects in humans, preliminary medical research shows likely benefit of regularly consuming raspberries against:

* inflammation
* pain
* cancer
* cardiovascular disease
* diabetes
* allergies
* age-related cognitive decline
* degeneration of eyesight with aging ~ Raspberry